Mohammedanism, faith of Islam, the religion preached by the prophet Mohammed (q.v.). The sacred book of the faith is the Quran (Koran), compiled after the death of the prophet, who, as far as we know, wrote nothing himself. The original creed was founded on Mohammed's belief in the one God, a loving Father who rules the universe with mercy; later, God was transformed into a hard, unforgiving despot who demanded the eternal destruction of all unbelievers. The creed is simple: ' There is no God but God, and Mohammed is the apostle of God.' However vile a Muslim may be, he can be saved, and however excellent an unbeliever may be, he must be damned for ever. The teaching of the faithful about women is a grave wrong in so great a faith; it destroys at once the sanctity of marriage and of motherhood, and the purity of the man's home.
Mohammed lifted Arabia from its ignorant worship of degraded gods, and he enforced strict laws of prayer, abstinence from wine, fasting, and cleanliness. The Koran embraces the whole teaching of Islam; the four prin. laws regarding the individual are first, worship, i.e. prayers to Allah five times a day, preferably in a mosque, but otherwise with the face turned to Mecca; secondly, fasting during the month of Ramadan from sunrise to sunset, including abstinence from smoking as well as food and drink (this month may occur at any season of the year, as the ceremonial year depends on twelve lunations unconnected with the seasons); thirdly, pilgrimage, to travel once at least during a lifetime to Mecca, and perhaps ) once to Medina; fourth, the giving of alms for the support of the faithful poor.
Women are not compelled strictly to observe these laws; those who can are naturally expected to fulfil their duty, but fasts and pilgrimages are not asked of them unless health and circumstances make it possible. Women pray in the mosques apart from the men, closely veiled as the Mohammedan law compels, but they may not lead the prayer, nor is it considered desirable that they should often offer public prayer.
No other sacred book is exactly parallel to the Koran in the influence it exerts over all parts of life, in the intense realization of the unseen, in its promises of future sensual joys, and in the stupendous but absurd claims made for it. The value of its more crude beliefs must not be judged too absolutely, for they are infinitely superior to many pagan systems, and when compared with many of the grossly superstitious faiths which Mohammad supplanted, its doctrines have their positive value. But with the advance of the world Islam cannot remain as the final form of religion and ethics for the races which now it sways. It hides more than it reveals God, and It makes men virtuous by outward precept rather than out of real love of noble conduct* (J. A. Macculloch, Religion : its Origin and Forms).
Besides the Koran three other books contain foundations of the faith of Islam, the Sunna, or traditional law, the Ijmaa, and the Kias (Kiyas). The Ijmaa are authoritative opinions on points of Mohammedan law delivered by those who were actual companions of the prophet. The Kias are the argument from analogy to support a legal rule for which there is no direct authority. These four comprise the whole religion of the Moslem.
The tact of the prophet being in possession of Mecca, the Arabian sanctuary, and the promise of a paradise which fulfilled all the material desires of the Arab, aided largely to increase the mass of converts. The prophet left no son, and after his death Abu Bekr succeeded as caliph (successor), or religious head of the Mohammedan empire. Each succeeding caliph was to be a direct lineal descendant of the prophet (see CALIPH).
In 654 the third caliph was murdered, and Ali, cousin of Mohammed, and husband of Fatima the prophet's daughter, succeeded as religious head of the empire. This was the beginning of the two great factions in the Moslem church, namely the Sunnites and the Shiites. Orthodox Muslims are known as Sunnites, because they accept the traditional teaching of Mohammed, or Sunna.
These traditions, like those of the Jewish rabbis, have grown to an enormous number, and regulate every detail of life. But even among Sunnites there are several schools called after their respective founders, who interpreted the Koran and the mass of traditions in different ways.
The Shiites reject the Sunna of the orthodox, though they have evolved a Sunna of their own, and in general apply an allegorical method to the Quran.
The Sunnites refused the belief of divine succession, and the Shiites regarded the first caliphs as usurpers, and Ali as the divine leader. Ali was murdered; Hassan, his son, took his place and was poisoned by his wife; then Hussein, his youngest brother, succeeded him, and he was slain at Kerbela and buried there; the place has since become a second Mecca to the Shiites.
Only one of Hussein's children survived the massacre, named Zayn-el-Abidin, and through him the Orthodox Mussulman Church claims the divine succession. The Shiites flourish chiefly in Persia. The Sunnites and the Shiites are often opposed to one another, both in points of law and in the sanctity of their leaders.
The sect of the Wahabis (q.v.) had their origin in Arabia in the eighteenth century, when Mohammed Wahab tried to restore the primitive form of Islam and to remove abuses that had gathered roundthe faith. An interesting attempt to engraft on Mohammedan principles wholly foreign to it is foundin Suflsm (q.v.) a movement within Islam, rather than a separate sect, having for its purpose a mystical union with God.
At the death of the prophet, the Mohammedan empire consisted of Arabia only, but close on a hundred years afterwards the faithful ruled from the Indus to the Pyrenees, compelling all subjects to accept the faith or die. The grandfather of Charlemagne finally drove them from France (A.D. 732). Egypt and Moslem Asia united and placed then- capital at Bagdad.
The Turks (Asiatic people from Turkestan) formed the bodyguard of the caliphs in Bagdad, and becoming stronger than their leaders conquered Asia Minor in 1299; it was then the title of sultan (victorious) came to be used.
The Turks invaded Europe,-1355, and besieged Constantinople in 1356, 1422 and 1453, in which last year they captured it, and it remained their capital until 1923, when Angora (now Ankara) was declared the capital.
Through the eleventh and twelfth centuries the Muslims gradually spread
into India and crossed the Punjab into the Deccan, where the prophet's creed remains one of the principle faiths of that part of the country to-day.
From this brief survey it can be seen how far and wide the teaching of the prophet has been carried; it has borne its fierce followers to win empires, but has not taught them to govern them. The consensus of Western opinion is that the laws of this great faith militate against progress, and destroy the main road to real civilisation; it recognises slavery, and degrades its mothers and daughters, but there is much simple truth and wonderful strength in the creed.
See K. H. Becker, Islam Studien, 1924 ff.; R. Levy, An Introduction to the Sociology of Mohammed Riza Islam, 1931-33; A. J. Arberry and R. Landau, Islam To-day, 1943; and H. A. R. •Gibb, Mohammedanism, 1949. Mohammed Riza Shah Pahlavi
Source: “Everyman’s Encyclopaedia” published J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd 1913-14.
Mohammed lifted Arabia from its ignorant worship of degraded gods, and he enforced strict laws of prayer, abstinence from wine, fasting, and cleanliness. The Koran embraces the whole teaching of Islam; the four prin. laws regarding the individual are first, worship, i.e. prayers to Allah five times a day, preferably in a mosque, but otherwise with the face turned to Mecca; secondly, fasting during the month of Ramadan from sunrise to sunset, including abstinence from smoking as well as food and drink (this month may occur at any season of the year, as the ceremonial year depends on twelve lunations unconnected with the seasons); thirdly, pilgrimage, to travel once at least during a lifetime to Mecca, and perhaps ) once to Medina; fourth, the giving of alms for the support of the faithful poor.
Women are not compelled strictly to observe these laws; those who can are naturally expected to fulfil their duty, but fasts and pilgrimages are not asked of them unless health and circumstances make it possible. Women pray in the mosques apart from the men, closely veiled as the Mohammedan law compels, but they may not lead the prayer, nor is it considered desirable that they should often offer public prayer.
No other sacred book is exactly parallel to the Koran in the influence it exerts over all parts of life, in the intense realization of the unseen, in its promises of future sensual joys, and in the stupendous but absurd claims made for it. The value of its more crude beliefs must not be judged too absolutely, for they are infinitely superior to many pagan systems, and when compared with many of the grossly superstitious faiths which Mohammad supplanted, its doctrines have their positive value. But with the advance of the world Islam cannot remain as the final form of religion and ethics for the races which now it sways. It hides more than it reveals God, and It makes men virtuous by outward precept rather than out of real love of noble conduct* (J. A. Macculloch, Religion : its Origin and Forms).
Besides the Koran three other books contain foundations of the faith of Islam, the Sunna, or traditional law, the Ijmaa, and the Kias (Kiyas). The Ijmaa are authoritative opinions on points of Mohammedan law delivered by those who were actual companions of the prophet. The Kias are the argument from analogy to support a legal rule for which there is no direct authority. These four comprise the whole religion of the Moslem.
The tact of the prophet being in possession of Mecca, the Arabian sanctuary, and the promise of a paradise which fulfilled all the material desires of the Arab, aided largely to increase the mass of converts. The prophet left no son, and after his death Abu Bekr succeeded as caliph (successor), or religious head of the Mohammedan empire. Each succeeding caliph was to be a direct lineal descendant of the prophet (see CALIPH).
In 654 the third caliph was murdered, and Ali, cousin of Mohammed, and husband of Fatima the prophet's daughter, succeeded as religious head of the empire. This was the beginning of the two great factions in the Moslem church, namely the Sunnites and the Shiites. Orthodox Muslims are known as Sunnites, because they accept the traditional teaching of Mohammed, or Sunna.
These traditions, like those of the Jewish rabbis, have grown to an enormous number, and regulate every detail of life. But even among Sunnites there are several schools called after their respective founders, who interpreted the Koran and the mass of traditions in different ways.
The Shiites reject the Sunna of the orthodox, though they have evolved a Sunna of their own, and in general apply an allegorical method to the Quran.
The Sunnites refused the belief of divine succession, and the Shiites regarded the first caliphs as usurpers, and Ali as the divine leader. Ali was murdered; Hassan, his son, took his place and was poisoned by his wife; then Hussein, his youngest brother, succeeded him, and he was slain at Kerbela and buried there; the place has since become a second Mecca to the Shiites.
Only one of Hussein's children survived the massacre, named Zayn-el-Abidin, and through him the Orthodox Mussulman Church claims the divine succession. The Shiites flourish chiefly in Persia. The Sunnites and the Shiites are often opposed to one another, both in points of law and in the sanctity of their leaders.
The sect of the Wahabis (q.v.) had their origin in Arabia in the eighteenth century, when Mohammed Wahab tried to restore the primitive form of Islam and to remove abuses that had gathered roundthe faith. An interesting attempt to engraft on Mohammedan principles wholly foreign to it is foundin Suflsm (q.v.) a movement within Islam, rather than a separate sect, having for its purpose a mystical union with God.
At the death of the prophet, the Mohammedan empire consisted of Arabia only, but close on a hundred years afterwards the faithful ruled from the Indus to the Pyrenees, compelling all subjects to accept the faith or die. The grandfather of Charlemagne finally drove them from France (A.D. 732). Egypt and Moslem Asia united and placed then- capital at Bagdad.
The Turks (Asiatic people from Turkestan) formed the bodyguard of the caliphs in Bagdad, and becoming stronger than their leaders conquered Asia Minor in 1299; it was then the title of sultan (victorious) came to be used.
The Turks invaded Europe,-1355, and besieged Constantinople in 1356, 1422 and 1453, in which last year they captured it, and it remained their capital until 1923, when Angora (now Ankara) was declared the capital.
Through the eleventh and twelfth centuries the Muslims gradually spread
into India and crossed the Punjab into the Deccan, where the prophet's creed remains one of the principle faiths of that part of the country to-day.
From this brief survey it can be seen how far and wide the teaching of the prophet has been carried; it has borne its fierce followers to win empires, but has not taught them to govern them. The consensus of Western opinion is that the laws of this great faith militate against progress, and destroy the main road to real civilisation; it recognises slavery, and degrades its mothers and daughters, but there is much simple truth and wonderful strength in the creed.
See K. H. Becker, Islam Studien, 1924 ff.; R. Levy, An Introduction to the Sociology of Mohammed Riza Islam, 1931-33; A. J. Arberry and R. Landau, Islam To-day, 1943; and H. A. R. •Gibb, Mohammedanism, 1949. Mohammed Riza Shah Pahlavi
Source: “Everyman’s Encyclopaedia” published J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd 1913-14.
